Amino acid:  One of several molecules that come together to form proteins. A group of 20 common amino acids are found in proteins.

Antibody:  A type of protein made by a white blood cell (plasma cell) in response to a foreign substance known as an antigen.  Each antibody can only bind to one specific antigen with the purpose of destroying the antigen.  Some antibodies destroy antigens directly while others make it possible for white blood cells to destroy the antigen.

Benign:  Not cancerous. Tumors that are benign may grow larger but do not spread to other parts of the body.

Biomarker (molecular marker, signature molecule):  Found in blood, other body fluids or tissues, this is a biological molecule that is a sign of a normal or abnormal process, condition or disease.  Biomarkers may be used to see how well the body is responding to a treatment for a disease or condition. 

Biopsy:  The removal of cells or tissues for examination by a pathologist.  The most common biopsy procedures include:  1) incisional biopsy where only a sample of tissue is removed, 2) excisional biopsy where an entire lump or suspicious area is removed, and 3) needle biopsy where a sample of tissue or fluid is removed with a needle.  When a fine needle is used, this is called a fine-needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy.  When a large needle is used, this is called core biopsy.

Biospecimen:  Samples of blood, urine, tissue, cells, RNA, DNA, or protein, etc. from humans, animals or plants that are stored and used for laboratory research.  When human samples are involved, medical information may also be stored with written consent to use the samples in lab studies.

Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy:   The removal of a small sample of liquid bone marrow through a needle for examination under a microscope, usually from the hip bone. The cells in the sample are placed on a glass slide, stained, and examined under the microscope by a pathologist or hematopathologist to identify any abnormality in the developing blood cells.  A bone marrow biopsy is sometimes taken at the same time as a bone marrow aspiration, where a core of bone from the hipbone, along with the liquid marrow, is removed.

Chemotherapy:  Treatment with drugs to kill cancer cells.

Chromosome:  The part of a cell containing genetic information.  Human cells contain 46 chromosomes.

CLIA – Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988:   National comprehensive, quality standards for all laboratory testing to ensure the accuracy, reliability and timeliness of patient test results regardless of where the test was performed.

Clinical study (clinical trial):  A research study that tests how well new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis or treatment work in patients. 

Comorbidity:  When a patient has two or more diseases at the same time.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA):  The molecules inside cells that carry the code for what type of protein will be made by a gene and then passes on that genetic information from one generation to another.   

Diagnosis:  Identifying a disease by its signs or symptoms.

DNA microarray (DMA):  A process that allows thousands of pieces of DNA to be analyzed at one time by fixing them to a glass slide.  The pieces of DNA or genes in specific cells or tissue are used to make RNA, which in turn can then be used to make proteins.

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH):  A laboratory technique to look at the genes or chromosomes in cells and tissues.  Pieces of DNA that are labeled with a fluorescent dye are made in the laboratory and then added to cells or tissues that have been placed on a glass slide.  When the labeled DNA binds to specific genes or chromosomes on the slide they will light up when looked at under a microscope with a special light.

Formalin fixed paraffin embedded tissue (FFPE):  A process where tissue from a biopsy is fixed in formalin or preserved to prevent decaying or degeneration.  The fixed tissue is then embedded or placed in wax and cut into sections so it can be stained for review under a microscope.

Gene:  Pieces of DNA carried on chromosomes that most often contain the information for making a specific protein.  Genes are responsible for passing on hereditary traits between parents and children. Each human has an estimated 90,000 genes.

Gene expression:  When a gene is turned on in a cell to make RNA and proteins.  Gene expression can be measured by RNA or the protein made from the RNA, or by what that protein does in a cell.

Gene expression profiling:  Measures messenger RNA (mRNA) made from many different genes in various cells.  It can help identify sub-groups of tumor types to give information that can help predict which patients may respond to treatment or be at increased risk for the relapse of cancer.

Genetic profile:  Describes the expression of specific genes in an individual or in a certain type of tissue.  A gene profile may be used to help diagnosis a disease or help establish how it may progress or respond to treatment.

Grade:  Establishes a scale for how abnormal cancer cells look under a microscope and how quickly the tumor is to grow and spread.  There are different grading systems for each type of cancer.

Hematopathologist:  A doctor who specializes in identifying diseases of the blood, bone marrow or lymph nodes by studying under a microscope.

Immunohistochemistry:  A technique where antibody marker dyes or stains are applied to tissue to show specific antigens.

Investigational drug (experimental drug):  A drug or agent that has been tested in the laboratory and has received approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to be tested in humans.  Even if a drug is approved by the FDA for use in one disease or condition, it can still be considered investigational in other diseases or conditions.

Levels of evidence:  A ranking system to describe the strength of results measured in a clinical trial, research study or publication. The design of the study and the end points that are measured affect the strength of the evidence.

Malignant:  A tumor that is cancerous.

Metastasis:  The spread of cancer from where the cancer began to another part of the body.

Molecular marker (biomarker):  Found in blood, other body fluids and tissue, this biological marker is a sign of a normal or abnormal process, or of a condition or disease.  It can also be used to see how well the body responds to treatment for a disease or condition.

Monoclonal antibody (Mab):  A type of protein that can locate and bind to tumor cells or other substances in the body.  Every monoclonal antibody is made to find one particular substance.  Mab’s are used to treat some types of cancer and can also be used alone or to carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive materials directly to a tumor.

Oncologist:  A doctor who specializes in treating cancer.

Pathologist:  A doctor who specializes in identifying diseases by studying them under the microscope.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR):  A laboratory technique to expand small amounts of DNA or RNA through amplification to make many copies of a specific DNA sequence. 

Protocol: An action plan for how a clinical trial will be conducted.  It provides the goals and timeline of the study, who is eligible to participate, what treatments and tests will be given and how often, and what type of information will be gathered.

Regimen: A plan for patient treatment that includes which drugs will be used, which procedures will be done, the schedule of treatments, and how long the treatment will last.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA):  One of two types of nucleic acids found in cells (DNA and RNA).  RNA is responsible for the production of proteins in cells and is manufactured from DNA.   There are several types of RNA including messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA).

Stage:  A term for typically describing where a cancer is located, if or where it has spread, and if it is affecting other organs of the body.

Tumor:  A tissue mass that requires a biopsy.